Free Trade Has Destroyed the American Dream
Why Trump Started a Trade War With the World
Key Points
Job Losses and Wage Stagnation
Job losses in manufacturing due to trade agreements like NAFTA have led to long-term unemployment or underemployment for many workers, especially in regions dependent on industrial jobs. Displaced workers often transition to lower-paying service jobs, perpetuating economic insecurity[1][3].
The loss of high-wage manufacturing jobs has suppressed wage growth across the economy, particularly for workers without college degrees. This has contributed to a broader trend of income stagnation and reduced purchasing power over decades[1].
Trade Deficits
Chronic trade deficits have weakened U.S. industries, making it difficult for them to compete globally. Once manufacturing plants close, they rarely reopen, leading to permanent declines in industrial capacity and innovation[2].
The reliance on foreign capital to finance trade deficits has made the U.S. the largest debtor nation, increasing risks of economic instability. A potential loss of confidence by foreign investors could trigger a financial crisis[2].
Deindustrialization and Economic Decline
Deindustrialization has devastated local economies, reducing tax bases and funding for public services like schools and infrastructure. This decline often leads to increased crime, substance abuse, and social instability[3].
The economic struggles caused by deindustrialization persist across generations, as affected communities struggle to attract new industries or create sustainable employment opportunities[3].
Income Inequality
Globalization and free trade have disproportionately benefited high-income earners while suppressing wages for low- and middle-income workers. This has deepened economic inequality, undermining social cohesion and democracy[4].
Minority groups, particularly Black and Latino workers, have been disproportionately affected by wage stagnation and job displacement due to their higher representation in unionized manufacturing jobs[4].
National Security Concerns
Trade deficits and deindustrialization have undermined the economic foundation necessary for a strong national defense. High levels of debt crowd out funding for military investments and diplomacy, weakening America's global standing[5].
Dependence on foreign production for critical goods (e.g., semiconductors) poses risks during geopolitical conflicts or supply chain disruptions[5].
Exploitation of Foreign Workers and U.S. Labor
Free trade agreements incentivize companies to move production to countries with lower labor standards. This has perpetuated exploitative practices, such as low wages and unsafe working conditions for foreign workers[6].
The availability of cheaper labor abroad reduces bargaining power for American workers, contributing to wage suppression and weaker labor protections domestically[6].
Weakening global labor rights: Free trade agreements often fail to enforce labor protections effectively, allowing exploitation in supply chains while eroding standards in developed nations like the U.S.[6].
Environmental Standards
Environmental degradation: Corporations relocating production to countries with lax environmental regulations have contributed to pollution and ecological harm globally. This undermines efforts to combat climate change[3][6].
While free trade has provided some economic benefits (e.g., lower consumer prices), its long-term consequences have devastated America. Americans no longer have access to the American Dream. Donald Trump’s tariff war with the world is an attempt to bring the American Dream back.
Job Losses and Wage Stagnation
Job Losses
Since NAFTA's implementation in 1994, the U.S. has experienced significant job losses, particularly in manufacturing. By 2010, an estimated 682,900 net jobs were displaced due to the U.S. trade deficit with Mexico alone, with most of these being high-paying manufacturing positions. Industries such as textiles, apparel, and automotive were hit hardest, as production shifted to Mexico to take advantage of lower wages and weaker labor protections. These job losses disproportionately affected states like Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, which had high concentrations of manufacturing employment[1][3][7]. Additionally, NAFTA's investor protections facilitated the relocation of factories overseas, further eroding U.S. employment in key sectors[7].
Wage Stagnation
Free trade agreements like NAFTA have contributed to wage stagnation for American workers by exposing them to competition with low-wage labor abroad. As manufacturing jobs moved overseas, displaced workers often transitioned into lower-paying service jobs, where wages averaged only two-thirds of their previous earnings. This dynamic weakened the bargaining power of low- and middle-wage workers and suppressed wage growth across the economy. Between 1979 and 2014, for instance, the median weekly wage for U.S. workers increased by just $4 (adjusted for inflation), despite a doubling of worker productivity during that period[2][4][6]. The downward pressure on wages has been particularly severe for non-college-educated workers, who make up a large share of the workforce[5].
Trade Deficits Since 1994
Since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994 and subsequent free trade agreements, the U.S. has experienced a dramatic increase in its trade deficits. The overall goods trade deficit rose from $70 billion in 1993 to a record $918.4 billion in 2024. This persistent deficit has been driven by the offshoring of manufacturing and the liberalization of trade, which allowed foreign producers to access U.S. markets with fewer restrictions while U.S. exports often faced barriers abroad. Key sectors like manufacturing and agriculture have been particularly affected, with industries such as advanced technology manufacturing shifting from a surplus of $38 billion in 1991 to a deficit of $299 billion by 2024. These deficits have eroded domestic production capacity, hollowed out industrial regions, and increased reliance on foreign imports, weakening the U.S.'s economic resilience.
Focus on China
China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 marked a significant turning point for U.S.-China trade relations and contributed heavily to the U.S. trade deficit. Between 2001 and 2024, the bilateral goods trade deficit with China surged from $83 billion to $295.4 billion annually. This increase was fueled by China's export-driven growth strategy, supported by currency manipulation, state subsidies, and lower labor costs, which made Chinese products highly competitive in global markets. Additionally, China's integration into global supply chains allowed Chinese content to enter the U.S. through third countries, further inflating the deficit. The "China Shock" also displaced approximately 2.4 million U.S. jobs between 1999 and 2011, primarily in manufacturing, exacerbating economic inequality and regional economic decline in the United States.
Deindustrialization and Economic Decline of America
Deindustrialization
NAFTA's enactment in 1994 eliminated tariffs and trade barriers, incentivizing companies to relocate manufacturing operations to countries like Mexico, where labor costs are substantially lower. This shift led to the closure of approximately 70,500 U.S. manufacturing establishments between 1997 and 2022, many of which were small factories employing fewer than five workers. Entire industries, such as garment production, saw employment decline by nearly 90%, while cities in the Rust Belt, such as Milwaukee, experienced widespread factory closures that devastated local economies. The loss of industrial jobs weakened unions, reduced tax bases for public services, and left communities struggling to recover economically[1][2][5].
Economic Decline
The economic decline resulting from free trade agreements like NAFTA stems from the erosion of America's manufacturing base and the displacement of high-wage jobs. Between 1994 and 2016, U.S. manufacturing employment dropped by 26%, falling from 16.8 million jobs to 12.4 million. This decline disproportionately affected middle-class workers and regions dependent on industrial production, leading to reduced economic activity and stagnation in these areas. The integration of global supply chains also shifted wealth toward corporations and investors while suppressing wages for American workers. Additionally, persistent trade deficits fueled by offshoring have undermined domestic production capacity and increased reliance on foreign imports, further weakening long-term economic resilience[1][2][3].
Income Inequality
Widening Wealth Gaps
Free trade agreements since 1994, starting with NAFTA, have exacerbated wealth inequality by disproportionately benefiting high-income earners while suppressing wages for middle- and working-class Americans. Between 1994 and 2000, the income share of the richest 10% grew at double the rate seen in the pre-NAFTA era (2.6% annually vs. 1.3%)[1]. Median weekly wages for U.S. workers stagnated, rising only $23 (inflation-adjusted) from 1979 to 2015, despite worker productivity doubling[1]. Trade policies intensified competition with low-wage labor abroad, depressing wages in manufacturing and enabling corporations to redirect profits to shareholders and executives. By 2015, the top 1% captured over 20% of national income, while the bottom 20% lost 4% of their income share[2]. This divergence was fueled by the offshoring of high-wage jobs and the growth of low-wage service sector employment.
Racial Disparities
Free trade policies disproportionately harmed Black and Latino workers, who were overrepresented in manufacturing industries devastated by offshoring. Fifteen states home to 58% of the Black population accounted for 2.9 million of the 4 million manufacturing jobs lost during the NAFTA-WTO era[3]. Latino workers, comprising 8.9% of the workforce, made up 12.3% of workers in the hardest-hit industries[5]. Wage gaps persisted: Black men earned 75 cents per dollar earned by white men in 1994, improving only to 79 cents by 2020, while Latinas saw their relative earnings drop from 78 cents to 73 cents[3][5]. Structural inequities, including limited access to education and high-quality jobs, compounded these disparities, leaving Black and Latino workers more vulnerable to trade-related job losses and wage stagnation[5].
National Security Concerns
Free trade agreements since 1994, beginning with NAFTA, have reshaped national security concerns by deepening economic interdependence while exposing vulnerabilities in critical supply chains and strategic industries. Initially framed as tools for mutual prosperity, agreements like NAFTA prioritized economic integration without fully anticipating geopolitical shifts, particularly China’s rise as a manufacturing and technological powerhouse[1][3]. By outsourcing production to low-cost regions, the U.S. became reliant on foreign suppliers for essential goods—from semiconductors to pharmaceuticals—creating risks during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic or geopolitical tensions[1][3]. This interdependence has allowed strategic competitors like China to leverage their dominance in supply chains (e.g., rare earth minerals, batteries) as potential tools of coercion, raising alarms about America’s ability to maintain military readiness or respond to disruptions[1][4].
The shift from viewing trade as purely economic to a national security imperative has intensified since 2016. While free trade boosted growth, it also transferred dual-use technologies to rivals and enabled foreign entities to acquire U.S. infrastructure assets, prompting scrutiny under frameworks like the Committee on Foreign Investment[4]. The U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) reflects this recalibration, aiming to relocalize critical supply chains within North America and reduce reliance on adversarial states[1]. However, debates persist: economic nationalists argue that decades of offshoring eroded industrial resilience, while free-trade advocates counter that protectionism stifles innovation and alienates allies[4][5]. These tensions underscore the ongoing challenge of balancing open markets with strategic autonomy in an era of great-power competition[3][4].
Exploitation of Foreign Workers and U.S. Labor
Labor Abuses Abroad
Since 1994, free trade agreements like NAFTA have incentivized companies to relocate production to countries with weaker labor protections, leading to widespread labor abuses abroad. In nations like Mexico and China, workers in export-oriented industries often face substandard wages, unsafe working conditions, and suppression of union rights. For example, Mexican manufacturing wages remain among the lowest in the world, often below $2 per hour. Many free trade agreements include labor provisions aimed at improving conditions, but enforcement has been inconsistent or ineffective. Reports indicate that between 2006 and 2023, no U.S. free trade agreement partners saw significant improvements in labor rights, with some even experiencing declines. This failure to enforce labor standards has allowed exploitative practices such as forced labor and child labor to persist in global supply chains[1][3][6].
Undermining U.S. Labor Standards
Free trade has also undermined U.S. labor standards by exposing American workers to competition with low-wage foreign labor, pressuring domestic employers to cut costs by reducing wages and benefits. The offshoring of jobs has weakened unions and eroded collective bargaining power, making it harder for workers to advocate for better conditions. Additionally, the influx of cheaper goods produced under exploitative conditions abroad creates an uneven playing field for American producers who adhere to stricter labor laws. This dynamic not only suppresses wages but also discourages the adoption of higher labor standards globally. While recent trade agreements like the USMCA have introduced stronger labor provisions, enforcement remains limited, leaving U.S. workers vulnerable to "unfair" competition from countries that fail to meet basic labor obligations[1][4][9].
Environmental Standards
Free trade agreements since 1994 have contributed to environmental degradation through increased pollution and weakened regulatory enforcement. The expansion of cross-border freight transportation under NAFTA led to heightened air pollution in border regions, with studies showing a 2% rise in U.S. carbon monoxide emissions and localized spikes in pollutants like sulfur dioxide near trade corridors[1][3]. Hazardous waste trade between NAFTA partners surged, exemplified by a 400% increase in U.S. waste exports to Canada post-1994, driven by disparities in environmental regulations[1]. Additionally, the agreement’s investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) mechanism allowed corporations to challenge environmental protections, resulting in over $400 million in taxpayer-funded payouts to companies contesting regulations[1][5]. These provisions created de facto "pollution havens," as industries relocated to Mexico and China, where environmental standards were less stringent[2][4].
Structurally, free trade prioritized economic integration over ecological safeguards, accelerating resource extraction and fossil fuel dependence. The USMCA (2020) failed to address climate change, instead reinforcing policies that enable energy corporations to bypass environmental regulations[5]. Cross-border production chains expanded carbon footprints through increased transportation emissions and offshored manufacturing, with 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions now linked to traded goods[5]. While NAFTA included environmental side agreements, enforcement remained inconsistent, and subsequent trade deals perpetuated a model that treats environmental protections as secondary to market access[2][3]. This legacy has left North America’s ecosystems vulnerable to industrial degradation while undermining collective efforts to meet climate targets[4][5].
Citations for the Key Points
[1] https://www.ineteconomics.org/perspectives/blog/wage-stagnation-and-productivity-a-fresh-analysis
[2] https://www.epi.org/publication/trade-deficits-consequences-policy-implications/
[3] https://ysu.edu/center-working-class-studies/social-costs-deindustrialization
[4] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-inequality-debate
[5] https://www.cato.org/blog/national-security-implications-unsustainable-spending-debt
[6] https://crownschool.uchicago.edu/student-life/advocates-forum/workplace-discrimination-and-undocumented-first-generation-latinx
[7] https://wol.iza.org/articles/environmental-regulations-and-labor-markets/long
[8] https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/working-paper-impacts-environmental-regulation-us-economy
[9] https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/10/climate-crisis-impacting-jobs-workforce/
[10] https://oxfordre.com/environmentalscience/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.001.0001/acrefore-9780199389414-e-396?p=emailAMCiMqAgwHcPs&d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199389414.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199389414-e-396
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[12] https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-12/documents/ee-0422.pdf
[13] https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1093/reep/rex013
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[15] https://www.epi.org/blog/wage-growth-since-1979-has-not-been-stagnant-but-it-has-definitely-been-suppressed/
[16] https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/19/heres-how-labor-dynamism-affects-wage-growth-in-america.html
[17] https://www.americanprogress.org/article/americans-wages-are-higher-than-they-have-ever-been-and-employment-is-near-its-all-time-high/
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[19] https://www.uschamber.com/workforce/understanding-americas-labor-shortage
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[22] https://www.epi.org/productivity-pay-gap/
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[50] https://equitablegrowth.org/u-s-income-and-wealth-inequality-are-no-longer-increasing-but-a-return-to-the-equitable-levels-of-the-mid-20th-century-isnt-likely-anytime-soon/
[51] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8489635/
[52] https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/spp-2021-0017/html?lang=en
[53] https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/01/09/trends-in-income-and-wealth-inequality/
[54] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/rising-inequality-a-major-issue-of-our-time/
[55] https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/Inequality
[56] https://warontherocks.com/2021/06/economics-and-u-s-national-security/
[57] https://www.klobuchar.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/national-security
[58] https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/04/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-declares-national-emergency-to-increase-our-competitive-edge-protect-our-sovereignty-and-strengthen-our-national-and-economic-security/
[59] https://www.acq.osd.mil/ncbdp/docs/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf
[60] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-national-security-implications-of-global-poverty/
[61] https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/implications-of-the-trump-administrations-tariff-announcement-on-us-economic-statecraft/
[62] https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/ATA-2024-Unclassified-Report.pdf
[63] https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org/article/national-security-risks-and-american-weak-link
[64] https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/economic-security.pdf
[65] https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/ISAB-Report-on-New-Security-Challenges_Final.pdf
[66] https://www.csis.org/analysis/beyond-economics-how-us-policies-can-undermine-national-security-goals
[67] https://2017-2021.commerce.gov/about/strategic-plan/strengthen-us-economic-and-national-security.html
[68] https://www.epi.org/publication/second-class-workers-assessing-h2-visa-programs-impact-on-workers/
[69] https://www.iom.int/news/migrant-workers-face-exploitation-serious-health-consequences-report
[70] https://www.nber.org/digest/202212/low-skill-foreign-employees-impacts-us-firms-and-workers
[71] https://refugees.org/stolen-in-plain-sight-losing-track-of-forced-labor-in-the-united-states/
[72] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10860016/
[73] https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/h1b-visa-program-fact-sheet
[74] https://polarisproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Labor-Trafficking-on-Specific-Temporary-Work-Visas-by-Polaris.pdf
[75] https://www.ice.gov/about-ice/hsi/investigate/worksite-enforcement-investigations
[76] https://www.shrm.org/topics-tools/news/talent-acquisition/foreign-workers-are-vital-part-of-us-labor-force
[77] https://www.roosevelthouse.hunter.cuny.edu/?forum-post=without-undocumented-workers-u-s-economy-disaster
[78] https://www.fwd.us/news/immigrant-farmworkers-and-americas-food-production-5-things-to-know/
[79] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9527784/
[80] https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R47063
[81] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/raising-labor-standards-a-means-towards-a-more-competitive-north-america/
[82] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988323002323
[83] https://www.wita.org/atp-research/impacts-of-ftas-with-usa/
[84] https://wol.iza.org/key-topics/environmental-regulation-and-the-labor-market
[85] https://www.nber.org/papers/w25910
[86] https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/706799
[87] https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2021/11/costs-benefits-and-unintended-consequences-environmental-law-and-deindustrialization/
[88] https://sbnsoftware.com/blog/what-are-the-consequences-of-failing-to-comply-with-environmental-laws/
[89] https://www.resources.org/common-resources/do-environmental-regulations-kill-jobs/
[90] https://www.nber.org/reporter/2022number2/us-environmental-policies-environment-and-economy
[91] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5751015/
[92] https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20240306-slowing-us-wage-growth-lower-salaries
[93] https://www.nber.org/digest/may18/employer-concentration-and-stagnant-wages
[94] https://www.nber.org/digest/20239/effects-job-loss-low-wage-workers
[95] https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/23921/412887-Consequences-of-Long-Term-Unemployment.PDF
[96] https://www.generation.org/news/understanding-unemployment-causes-consequences-and-solutions/
[97] https://www.jff.org/costs-and-causes-wage-stagnation/
[98] https://manhattan.institute/article/wage-stagnation-and-its-discontents-rethinking-the-safety-net-to-encourage-a-more-dynamic-economy
[99] https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=129541
[100] https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/04/regulating-imports-with-a-reciprocal-tariff-to-rectify-trade-practices-that-contribute-to-large-and-persistent-annual-united-states-goods-trade-deficits/
[101] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/us-trade-deficit-how-much-does-it-matter
[102] https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/051515/pros-cons-trade-deficit.asp
[103] https://www.cgdev.org/publication/financial-realities-us-trade-deficit-tariffs-cant-change
[104] https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1986/06/art1full.pdf
[105] https://www.epi.org/publication/bp243/
[106] https://consilienceproject.org/deindustrialization-and-the-american-city/
[107] https://www.nber.org/reporter/2023number1/life-cycle-impacts-graduating-recession
[108] https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/issues10/
[109] https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-recession-and-its-aftermath
[110] https://www.cato.org/publications/reality-american-deindustrialization
[111] https://www.epi.org/publication/inequalitys-drag-on-aggregate-demand/
[112] https://www.epi.org/publication/secular-stagnation/
[113] https://www.aarpinternational.org/initiatives/future-of-work/megatrends/income-inequality
[114] https://inequality.org/facts/income-inequality/
[115] https://news.osu.edu/rising-income-inequality-linked-to-americans-declining-health/
[116] https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/krueger_cap_speech_final_remarks.pdf
[117] https://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/consequences-economic-inequality/
[118] https://www.cnn.com/2025/04/09/economy/trump-tariffs-whats-next-economy/index.html
[119] https://www.dhs.gov/archive/science-and-technology/why-earth-systems-science-essential-national-security
[120] https://www.rand.org/pubs/articles/2023/truth-decay-is-putting-us-national-security-at-risk.html
[121] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-real-national-security-threat-americas-debt/
[122] https://www.commerce.gov/sites/default/files/2024-12/The-Decisive-Decade-Advancing-National-Security-at-the-Department-of-Commerce.pdf
[123] https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2021/01/national-security-in-an-age-of-insurrection?lang=en
[124] https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/National_Security_Implications_of_Changing_Climate_Final_051915.pdf
[125] https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/trump-clinton-immigration-economy-unemployment-jobs-214216
[126] https://www.aclu.org/news/national-security/human-rights-abuse-plain-sight-migrant-workers-us
[127] https://labourexploitation.org/app/uploads/2019/05/Report_Risks-of-Exploitation-in-TMPs_May-2019_Final.pdf
[128] https://www.epi.org/publication/u-s-benefits-from-immigration/
[129] https://www.lls.edu/media/loyolalawschool/academics/clinicsexperientiallearning/sji/publicationsandreports/SUMMARY%20OF%20REPORTS%20-%20Widespread%20Abuses%20of%20Temporary%20Immigrant%20Workers%20and%20Growth%20of%20Temporary%20Visa%20Programs%20%20(1).pdf
[130] https://bhr-navigator.unglobalcompact.org/issues/migrant-workers/
[131] https://www.epi.org/blog/immigrant-workers-help-grow-the-u-s-economy-new-state-fact-sheets-illustrate-the-economic-benefits-of-immigration/
Citations for Job Losses and Wage Stagnation
[1] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/naftas-economic-impact
[2] https://www.citizen.org/article/studies-reveal-consensus-trade-flows-during-free-trade-era-have-exacerbated-u-s-income-inequality-2/
[3] https://www.epi.org/publication/briefingpapers_bp147/
[4] https://www.epi.org/publication/unfair-trade-deals-lower-the-wages-of-u-s-workers/
[5] https://usw.org/nafta-at-20-one-million-u-s-jobs-lost-higher-income-inequality/
[6] https://www.epi.org/publication/charting-wage-stagnation/
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAFTA's_effect_on_United_States_employment
[8] https://www.cato.org/commentary/nafta-30-years-driving-free-trade-critics-crazy
[9] https://www.thenation.com/article/economy/nafta-working-class/
[10] https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/north-american-free-trade-agreement.asp
Citations for Trade Deficit
[1] https://www.epi.org/publication/trade-deficits-consequences-policy-implications/
[2] https://prosperousamerica.org/free-trade-agreements-have-damaged-u-s-agricultural-trade-performance/
[3] https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/3_Obstfeld.pdf
[4] https://americancompass.org/a-new-trade-paradigm/
[5] https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/law/free-trade-overview
[6] https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/04/regulating-imports-with-a-reciprocal-tariff-to-rectify-trade-practices-that-contribute-to-large-and-persistent-annual-united-states-goods-trade-deficits/
[7] https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/north-american-free-trade-agreement.asp
[8] https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/services/tax/me-tax-legal-news/2025/impact-us-tariff-decisions-on-middle-east-businesses-what-to-do-now.html
Citations for Deindustrialization and Economic Decline
[1] https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-us-factories-lost-nafta-tariffs-fact-check/
[2] https://www.epi.org/publication/briefingpapers_bp147/
[3] https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/north-american-free-trade-agreement.asp
[4] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/naftas-economic-impact
[5] https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/03/magazine/nafta-tarriffs-economy-trump-kamala-harris.html
[6] https://www.cato.org/commentary/nafta-30-years-driving-free-trade-critics-crazy
[7] https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/manufactured-crisis-deindustrialization-free-markets-national-security
[8] https://www.cato.org/publications/how-trade-agreements-have-enhanced-freedom-prosperity-americans
Citations for Income Inequality
[1] https://www.citizen.org/article/studies-reveal-consensus-trade-flows-during-free-trade-era-have-exacerbated-u-s-income-inequality/
[2] https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National_Office_Pubs/lessons_from_nafta.pdf
[3] https://www.wita.org/atp-research/trade-discrimination-latino-workers/
[4] https://www.epi.org/publication/issuebriefs_ib120/
[5] https://www.citizen.org/wp-content/uploads/PC_Trade-Discrimination-Report_1124.pdf
[6] https://mfgren.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/The-Impact-of-Trade-on-Black-Workers.pdf
[7] https://www.citizen.org/wp-content/uploads/Public-Citizen-LCLAA_Latinos-and-NAFTA-Report.pdf
[8] https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w23878/w23878.pdf
[9] https://www.cato.org/publications/how-trade-agreements-have-enhanced-freedom-prosperity-americans
[10] https://home.uchicago.edu/~kanit/kanitk/Research_files/kanitk_jobmarketpaper.pdf
[11] https://www.aeaweb.org/research/trade-deals-economic-political
[12] https://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1187&context=econ_fac
[13] https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/naftas-impact-u-s-economy-facts/
[14] https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/files/dani-rodrik/files/trade_and_inequality_rev_aug2011.pdf
[15] https://scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/downloads/vx021f791?disposition=inline&locale=en
[16] https://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/08/north-american-free-trade-agreement.asp
[17] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/naftas-economic-impact
[18] https://www.cato.org/trade-policy-analysis/americas-maligned-misunderstood-trade-deficit
[19] https://www.epi.org/publication/trade-deficits-consequences-policy-implications/
[20] https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/wealth-inequality-and-the-racial-wealth-gap-20211022.html
[21] https://www.ntu.org/foundation/detail/do-black-and-hispanic-workers-benefit-from-trade
[22] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4300995/
[23] https://www.epi.org/publication/briefingpapers_bp147/
[24] https://www.americanprogress.org/article/trade-and-race/
[25] https://www.americanprogress.org/article/systematic-inequality-economic-opportunity/
[26] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/black-progress-how-far-weve-come-and-how-far-we-have-to-go/
[27] https://www.asc.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/2021-03/Effects%20of%20Race%20on%20Attitudes%20toward%20International%20Trade_final_dcmFriday.pdf
[28] https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/01/08/trump-trade-black-latino-workers/
[29] https://www.epi.org/unequalpower/publications/understanding-black-white-disparities-in-labor-market-outcomes/
[30] https://www.americanprogress.org/article/systematic-inequality/
[31] https://home.treasury.gov/news/featured-stories/racial-inequality-in-the-united-states
[32] https://www.citizen.org/article/studies-reveal-consensus-trade-flows-during-free-trade-era-have-exacerbated-u-s-income-inequality-2/
[33] https://robertwraypllc.com/nafta-and-its-impact-on-income-inequality-an-analytical-approach-for-evaluating-the-agreement/
[34] https://citizen.typepad.com/eyesontrade/2014/01/studies-reveal-consensus-trade-flows-during-free-trade-era-have-exacerbated-us-income-inequality.html
[35] https://www.thenation.com/article/economy/nafta-working-class/
Citations for National Security Concerns
[1] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/usmca-forward-2023-chapter-1-national-security/
[2] https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA276615.pdf
[3] https://www.alephas.org/post/free-trade-a-national-security-threat
[4] https://aier.org/article/a-free-prosperous-and-secure-america/
[5] https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/1984/1/cj3n3-6.pdf
[6] https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/the-new-rules-of-trade-with-china-navigating-tariffs-turmoil-and-opportunities
[7] https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/04/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-declares-national-emergency-to-increase-our-competitive-edge-protect-our-sovereignty-and-strengthen-our-national-and-economic-security/
[8] https://warontherocks.com/2024/10/china-clean-technologies-and-national-security/
[9] https://cei.org/blog/trade-is-a-tool-for-american-national-security/
[10] https://history.defense.gov/Portals/70/Documents/nss/nss1994.pdf
[11] https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/04/regulating-imports-with-a-reciprocal-tariff-to-rectify-trade-practices-that-contribute-to-large-and-persistent-annual-united-states-goods-trade-deficits/
[12] https://www.cbp.gov/trade/north-american-free-trade-agreement
[13] https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R42965
[14] https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/black-hole-national-security
[15] https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA263863
[16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement
[17] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/naftas-economic-impact
[18] https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R42965/15
[19] https://www.usnews.com/news/economy/articles/2017-12-11/nafta-collapse-a-threat-to-national-security-future-trade-deals
[20] http://kaptur.house.gov/issues/trade
[21] https://ielp.worldtradelaw.net/2024/12/the-us-proposal-on-how-to-handle-disputes-on-essential-security-measures.html
[22] https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep06003
[23] https://thecommonwealth.org/publications/commonwealth-cyber-journal-volume-2/national-security-exception-international-trade-and-cybersecurity
[24] https://www.cnn.com/2025/04/07/business/china-trump-tariffs-opportunity-analysis-intl-hnk/index.html
[25] https://www.americansecurityproject.org/free-trade-and-national-security-5-key-issues/
[26] https://fedsoc.org/fedsoc-review/national-security-trade-and-china-risks-and-responses-in-the-internet-age
[27] https://www.hoover.org/research/does-national-security-justify-trade-restrictions
[28] https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/contentious-us-china-trade-relationship
[29] https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/counterintelligence/the-china-threat
[30] https://lawliberty.org/how-trade-openness-advances-americas-national-security/
[31] https://tnsr.org/2024/06/just-do-it-explaining-the-characteristics-and-rationale-of-chinese-economic-sanctions/
[32] https://thesimonscenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/IAJ-10-4-2019-pg5-13.pdf
[33] https://www.csis.org/analysis/effects-trump-administrations-tariff-threats-against-canada-and-mexico
[34] https://www.csis.org/analysis/fishing-success-using-trade-agreements-enhance-national-security
[35] https://www.epi.org/publication/u-s-trade-policy-time-to-start-over/
[36] https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/04/report-to-the-president-on-the-america-first-trade-policy-executive-summary/
[37] https://www.reddit.com/r/China/comments/1jvz1r3/why_trump_is_hitting_china_on_trade_and_what/
Citations for Environmental Standards
Citations:
[1] https://www.cec.org/files/documents/publications/1871-free-trade-and-environment-picture-becomes-clearer-en.pdf
[2] https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/nafta-environmental-record-commentary.pdf
[3] https://www.wilsoncenter.org/chapter-7-uneasy-neighbors-trade-and-the-environment
[4] https://www.bu.edu/eci/files/2019/06/Trade_and_the_Environment.pdf
[5] https://www.iatp.org/documents/new-nafta-continues-damaging-climate-legacy
[6] https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/sampj-02-2024-0122/full/html
[7] https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10166
[8] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264999324003183
[9] https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/3/597
[10] https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/historical-background-environment-trade-and-investment-epa
[11] https://www.cec.org/files/documents/publications/1697-assessing-environmental-effects-north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta-en.pdf
[12] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800999000944
[13] https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/law/free-trade-overview
[14] https://scholar.smu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1784&context=lbra
[15] https://www.ciel.org/reports/enforcement-of-environmental-laws-under-a-supplemental-agreement-to-the-north-american-free-trade-agreement-5-georgetown-international-environmental-law-review-593-1993-housman-orbuch-te93-4-2/
[16] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1462901120313666
[17] https://www.brookings.edu/articles/usmca-forward-building-a-more-competitive-inclusive-and-sustainable-north-american-economy-climate/
[18] https://greenly.earth/en-us/blog/company-guide/how-can-free-trade-agreements-and-ecology-be-aligned
[19] http://www.cec.org/files/documents/publications/1794-environmental-effects-free-trade-papers-presented-north-american-symposium-en.pdf
[20] https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1417&context=cuslj
[21] https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28004-5
[22] https://usfblogs.usfca.edu/sustainability/2020/05/13/environmental-effects-of-nafta/
[23] https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w3914/w3914.pdf
[24] https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/envir_e/climate_impact_e.htm
[25] https://www.iisd.org/articles/trade-and-environment
[26] https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=bjil
[27] https://www.wilsoncenter.org/chapter-7-uneasy-neighbors-trade-and-the-environment
[28] https://www.bu.edu/eci/files/2019/06/Trade_and_the_Environment.pdf
[29] https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/practice/law-reviews/iiclr/pdf/vol3p361.pdf
[30] https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/e231d302-3e87-5410-a7d2-a1b24a7b5215
[31] https://www.e-ir.info/2011/03/15/trade-liberalization-and-environmental-protection/
[32] https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/cusma-aceum/initial_ea-ee_initiale.aspx?lang=eng